Jigokudani: A Look at Japan’s Volcanic “Hell Valleys”

Jigokudani: A Look at Japan’s Volcanic “Hell Valleys”

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Oyunuma
Picture: YsPhoto / PIXTA(ピクスタ)
A look at how Japan's two most prominent religions' versions of hell shaped the story of its iconic jigokudani, or "hell valleys."

The concept of “hell” or “the underworld” is prevalent in religion, legend, and mythology throughout almost all countries of the world. In Japan’s traditional Shinto religion, however, that idea was almost non-existent. Until they discovered the Eight Hells of Buddhism. How did the fusion of Japan’s two most prominent belief systems lead to the designation of certain natural landscapes as jigokudani, or literal “hell valleys”?

Why “Jigokudani?”

Hell in Japanese Mythology

A Japanese expression states: “One lives by Shinto, and dies by Buddhism.” What does this mean? 

Japan shows many influences of religion within its culture, including its own, Shintoism. While many religions, including Confucianism, Tao, and Christianity have infiltrated their notoriously homogenous society at one point or another, none have been as influential as Shintoism (Japan’s own indigenous religion) and Buddhism.

However, Shintoism, as we know it today, is vastly different from the Shintoism of the pre-Buddhism era. In fact, it was the fusion of the two[1] that derived the concept of hell in Japan in the first place. That is because traditional Shinto focuses more on life and the living, while Buddhism puts a strong focus on the afterlife. (This is apparent in how Japan tends to hold Shinto ceremonies, such as weddings and celebrations, during life, but Buddhist funerals and rituals after death)[2].

Religion, Death, and Jigokudani

In original Shintoism, there never was an established concept of Heaven or Hell. There was only the present world of the living and the underworld where people went after they died. Everybody went to the same place when they died. There was no Heaven or Hell, no reward for doing good or punishment for doing bad. No fire, no torture, and the demons, or “oni” that existed were more like mischievous spirits, some that existed to help others, and others that just liked to cause trouble like little children.

This afterlife was Yomi, and comes from Shinto mythology. Yomi wasn’t a place to punish the wrongdoers or curse them to eternal damnation. It wasn’t necessarily “bad,” nor was it a fiery pit of destruction. It was merely a gloomy place where all the dead people went. Think of it more as an underground “spirit world” than an actual hell.

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Shinto has always regarded death as “unclean”. Followers believed that associations with death and Yomi contaminated the living with sadness and despair. Followers of Shinto didn’t perform burial rites for the deceased, nor did they build cemeteries near shrines and temples. This clearly differs from other religions, especially Christianity, where the body is sacred even after death. Shinto doesn’t usually establish cemeteries behind or near shrines and temples. Rather, surviving members of the deceased would built small shrines in the home with a photo or personal item of the deceased to honor their spirit, which they believe continued to walk with them throughout life, despite having traversed to another realm.

Yomi: The “Hell” of Shintoism

Shintoism also never clearly establishes who goes to Yomi and why. Yomi had more significance as a setting in the creation myth of Japan, featuring the deities Izanami and Izanami, the god and goddess of creation, respectively, than in the religion itself. 

Yomi was ruled by Izanami. The story of Yomi tells of how Izanagi departs into the underworld to rescue goddess Izanami after her death. Insisting that death is permanent, Izanami refuses to leave with him, and begs him to leave. However, he insists, and stays by her side. Being the dark underground land of the dead that it is, however, Izanagi couldn’t see her, and she made him promise not to look at her dead form as long as he stays. Izanagi swears, but as gods and goddesses so often do in mythological tales, he eventually breaks his promise one night, and lights a fire to get a look at her as she slept. Shocked and frightened by the sight of her decayed, rotting flesh, he flees the underworld, but not before she awakens and realizes what happened.

Offended by Izanagi’s reaction, Izanami sends her “demons” after him to bring him back, but fails at the last minute when Izanagi at last escapes, and seals up the entrance to Yomi with a giant boulder. Trapped in the underworld by herself, Izanami shouts at her deserter that from then on, as revenge for trapping her in there, she would claim the lives of 1,000 people every day as long as Izanagi remained apart from her. Unwilling to acquiesce her, Izanagi replies that he would give life to 150,000 people instead, and leaves her behind once and for all, declaring Yomi an unclean and impure land.

And this is why people die, according to Shinto. 

The Eight Hells of Buddhism

An excerpt from Jigoku-Soushi, a 12th-century scroll documenting Hell in Buddism. (Picture: Wikipedia)

It was only after Buddhism found its way into the Japanese belief system that the association between death and the underworld came about. In fact, the word “jigoku,” meaning “hell” in Japanese, originates from Buddhism, as well. (People don’t use the term “Yomi” as seen in original Japanese mythology, further separating the connection between Shintoism and death). 

Along with jigoku came tengoku, which refers to the Buddhist version of Heaven. The souls of the deceased faced several trials of judgment in “meido,” the middle land (similar to Christian Purgatory.) The outcome of their trials determined the appropriate afterlife for them.

Because nobody wants to go to Jigoku, Buddhism tends to focus on death even during life. (Again, similar to Christianity, in which one must live according to certain principles if they want to go to heaven). However, some people depict Buddhist hell as even more atrocious than Christian hell.

Highway to (and from) Hell

Wrongdoers don’t just spend an eternity in damnation surrounded by flames and the screams of the dead. In Buddhism, there are eight different hells for wrongdoers[3]. Each hell varies depending on the actual sins and crimes of the condemned.

The Eight Hells are as follows: The Hell of Revival, the Crushing Hell, the Hell of Screaming, the Hell of Great Screaming (with even more screaming than the first!), the Hell of Burning, the Hell of Great Burning (now with two times the flames!), and the Hell of Unending Suffering (aka, you effed up and lost your shot at revival.)

These hells are all ruled by Enma, the King of Hell. Enma employs various types of demons, or “oni,” to do his bidding as well as help run things. (Hey, managing eight hells is a rough job!)

The good news? Unlike Christian hell, Buddhist hell is not eternal. There is hope for redemption in which a soul can get a “second chance” and reincarnate on earth to make up for their wrongdoings. However, each individual hell has its own rules, punishments, and sentence lengths, so depending on how bad you were during life, you might end up staying longer than you’d like.

The Birth of Volcanoes and Jigokudani

Now you know everything you ever wanted to know about Japanese hell. But you might be wondering, “Okay, but what does that have to do with volcanoes? Or any type of real-world geography at all?”

Glad you asked.

Fire Gods and Volcano Worship

First of all, one of the basic ideas of original Japanese Shintoism is animism. This is apparent through the worship of various figures, especially of nature. There was a deity for practically everything in Shintoism, including rocks, trees, and water. Some of the most important and most revered natural figures were volcanoes and mountains. We can even see today that many mountains are highly sacred areas. Mount Fuji itself is a Holy Mountain of Japan, and actually comprises a group of three volcanoes.

Where does the connection between volcanoes and hell come in? Let’s go back to the story of Izanagi and Izanami.

An Unusual Overlap

A Meiji-era depiction of Izanami (left) and Izanagi, by artist Kobayashi Eitaku. (Picture: Wikipedia)

These two deities of creation were responsible for the birth of many other important Shinto deities (much like in Greek mythology). Many of their children are what became the islands that formed the Japanese archipelago.

One of these godly offspring, however, came as a surprise. That was Kagutsuchi, the god of fire, who ended up burning Izanami to death as she birthed him. Going back to the earlier story about how Izanami ended up in Yomi, well basically, it was all this guy’s fault. When Izanagi goes to rescue her, she sends demons after hi when he tries to escape. One of these demons just so happens to be his fire god offspring.

Before escaping, Izanagi enters a stand-off with his hot-headed son, and wielding a giant sword, slices his head clean off. As if to make extra certain that he was dead for good, Izanagi chops up the flaming corpse into eight pieces, which end up scattered throughout the land, becoming eight different volcanoes.

So Shintoism has an angry fire deity who was murdered, butchered, and turned into eight volcanoes. And Buddhism has Jigoku, with its eight separate hells that coincidentally resemble these volcanoes. Can you see the overlap? It’s no wonder that Japan soon established a connection between volcanoes and the underworld.

Japan’s Volcanic Jigokudani

After the addition of hell to Japanese religion and mythology, the concept of death and the underworld became a great influence on other areas of life, including customs and art. It also lent its influence to the naming of geographical features that bore such an uncanny resemblance. Introducing: Japan’s jigokudani.

Japan is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, the area on the Earth with some of the highest levels of earthquakes and volcanic activity. Most of the mountains in Japan are (or were, at some point) volcanoes. Mount Fuji is the tallest of these volcano-mountains in Japan, as well as the most sacred. Revered by the indigenous Ainu people, Mt. Fuji has several hellish landscapes of its own. In Shinto, Mt. Fuji is ruled by deity Princess Konohanasakuya. It was was also a sacred site of pilgrimages by Shinto believers. Mt. Fuji was also registered in 2013 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Jigokudani: Hell on Earth

Where there are volcanoes, there are landscapes of desolation. Remnants of previous eruptions abound, featuring steam vents, boiling springs, and the strong smell of sulfur.

These areas are commonly referred to as “jigokudani,” or “hell valleys”[4]. Despite a couple of tourist attractions bearing the same name, there are way more than one or two.  Many of these are located in the regions of Hokkaido, Tohoku, and Kyushu. 

Boiling mud, springs, and geysers, and odorous steam rising up out of the ground, dominate the hell valleys. Temperatures are so hot and odors so strong, only a demon could survive. It is easy to see why one might associate hell valleys with a literal underworld. 

However, from these hellish scenes, come a rather heavenly resource. Hell valleys are also the primary source of natural hot water in the towns’ hot springs.

GO TO HELL! Introducing 5 Jigokudani of Japan

Because of the unique landscape, many hell valleys have become popular tourist attractions. Many of them go by the name “Jigokudani” as their official name. However, there are way more hell valleys than you might think. Let’s take a look at a few.

Jigokudani 1. Noboribetsu: Japan’s Own ‘Demon Town’

Jigokudani: Noboribetsu
A sign at the Noboribetsu “Hell Valley” warning travelers against keeping out. (Picture:  CRENTEAR / PIXTA(ピクスタ))

Hokkaido’s Jigokudani is located within the Shikotsu-Toya National park[5]. It features boiling hot springs, lava pits, and sulfur calderas. This 450 meter geothermal crater formed with the eruption of Mount Kuttara around 20,000 years ago, when formerly dormant lava began to flow from the craters left behind from the mountain’s last big eruption over 40,000 years ago. It is now one of the most popular tourist hot-spots for onsen trips.

Many flock to the nearby Noboribetsu Town[6] to enjoy a soak the hot-springs resorts. The waters come directly from the hell valleys. They are mineral-rich, and boast amazing benefits for the skin and relief of fatigue.

Keep in mind, not every water source in these hell valleys are bather-friendly. In fact, many of them reach dangerously high temperatures, some as high as 50°C/122°F. You will find many fences blockading off danger zones such as these.  

Noboribetsu also prominently features oni, or demons, in its traditions as well as aesthetics. Locals believed that demons inhabited these bubbling pits, yet were more like guardians of the land rather than mischievous or evil beings. You can see the town paying homage to these ghastly guardians all throughout the town which features oni as a strong motif. Noboribetsu also houses a Shinto shrine dedicated to Enma, the Buddhist King of Hell, (kind of ironic), and is the venue for the annual “Hell Festival.”

Jigokudani 2. Beppu Onsen: A Heavenly Hell

Jigokudani: Beppu
The less hospitable side of the hot springs town of Beppu. (Picture: @yume / PIXTA(ピクスタ))

Next up on the list of popular hells is that in Beppu, Kyushu, the onsen capital of Japan[7]. The Kyushu Region boasts about 3,000 hot springs alone and is second in the world only to Yellowstone National Park in the United States. 

The source of this region’s insane amount of volcanic activity is the nearby Mount Aso. Mount Aso is currently Japan’s largest active volcano, and stands at roughly 5,200 feet tall. All of this geothermal action also powers the largest onsen resort in the world, Beppu Onsen. This onsen hotspot also features eight of the hottest geothermic areas, appropriately named the “eight hells of Beppu.” (Sound familiar?)

All of these hot springs pay tribute to the land’s hellish features with equally hellish names, such as “Crocodile Hell,” “Demon Mountain Hell,” and even “Shaven Head Hell.”

Jigokudani 3. Osorezan: A Fearful Retreat

Jigokudani: Osorezan
Part of the temple at Osorezan. (Picture: A.kiyoshi / PIXTA(ピクスタ))

As its name suggests, Osorezan[8] – literally,”Mountain of Fear” in English – is possibly the spookiest of all the hell valleys of Japan. Located on a remote peninsula of Aomori Prefecture, this traditionally Buddhist hell features a barren, rugged landscape hiding venomous vipers and poisonous lakes. It is often dubbed “The Gateway to Hell.”

This Hell Valley was discovered by local Buddhist monk Ennin over 1,000 years ago on his spiritual pilgrimage to find the holy mountain of Buddha. This region is one of Japan’s most sacred sites[9] and has some of the holiest mountains in the country. It is no wonder that locals believed it to also house the gates to the netherworlds.

The reason for its more-eerie-than-usual landscape is that the site happens to resemble the Buddhist description of hell at an almost uncanny level. Surrounding the crater (created by a volcano that is still very much active) are eight mountain peaks, seeming to frighteningly represent the Eight Buddhist Hells. 

Surrounded by fumaroles, the smell of sulfur permeates the air. Some of the waters, such as those of Lake Usori, are so acidic, almost no life can thrive. There is also a river flowing nearby that Ennin appropriately named “Sanzu no Kawa,” the Buddhist version of the River Styx[10]. 

Fully convinced that he had indeed reached the gates of hell, Ennin completed his excursion of the area with the founding of the Bodai Temple, the temple of the dead. This temple now serves as a pilgrimage site for those who have lost loved ones, especially children, to come and pay their respects.

Jigokudani 4. Owakudani: Black Eggs of Immortality

Jigokudani: Owakudani
One of the black eggs of Owakudani (Picture: gpp2018 / PIXTA(ピクスタ))

Amongst the hell valleys surrounding Mount Fuji is Hakone’s Owakudani[11]. Owakudani is famous for serving black eggs[12], boiled directly in the springs.

But there’s nothing particularly special about the eggs themselves.  It’s the 80ºC/175ºF waters of the calderas used to cook them that are special.

This water has sulfur levels that dye the eggshells black as death. However, contrary to the morbid association, local legend asserts that these eggs, rather than kill you, add seven years to your life. Who needs the fountain of youth when you can just eat eggs of immortality? 

*Please note that recently, due to increased volcanic activity in the Hakone area, many attractions are temporarily closed, including the ropeway that takes you over the steaming vents on the mountainside.

Jigokudani 5. Unzen: The Vilest Hell of All

Jigokudani: The bubbling pools of Unzen.
Boiling water in a hot spring in Unzen. (Picture: TOSHI.K / PIXTA(ピクスタ))

Last but not least is possibly the most horrific and depressing of them all: Unzen, located in Nagasaki Prefecture. The mountainous area of Unzen features many of the same characteristics as the previously mentioned hells. However, if those were hells based on the mere appearance of the region, Unzen is hell for an entirely different reason. Namely, the horrendous activities that occurred out here.

Formerly a Buddhist complex, Unzen was eventually adopted by Christian missionaries and their converts in the 1500-1600s. But when the Japanese government placed a ban on Christianity, quite literally, all hell broke loose. They forced missionaries out of their land and sentenced many converts to execution, usually preceded by brutal forms of torture carried out in the same valleys. They were crucified, burned, and tossed alive into the boiling pits of death. 

Nowadays, Unzen is quite similar to many other hell valleys[13]. It has its haunting landscape, volcanic activity, and onsen resorts. But it also has a dark history which is definitely worth learning about, especially if planning to visit.

Next time somebody tells you to “go to hell,” ask them which one, and proceed to book your next flight to Japan.

Safety Concerns For Visiting Jigokudani

Please note that all of these areas are in fact real, active volcano sites. Make sure to follow all safety measurements and stay within bounds of designated safe areas when walking around. Never enter a closed-off zone, as there could be a potential for ground collapse or geyser eruptions.

Be sure to thoroughly check the Japan Meteorological Agency’s disaster updates and warning system. Updates and information on the website are available in both English and Japanese.

Don’t Miss Out on Japan’s Five Most Charming Prefectures

Sources

[1] 神仏習合. Wikipedia JP

[2] 神道と仏教の違いとは?Oshiete O-tera, Jinja-san

[3] 仏教世界の「地獄」はどんな場所か. Reki-log

[4] 地獄・地獄谷とは?Biglobe

[5] Shikotsu-toya National Park. National Parks in Hokkaido

[6] Noboribetsu Spa

[7] 別府温泉のなぞと歴史. City of Beppu

[8] 恐山は日本三大霊山のひとつ。今まで感じたことのない異世界感を体験しよう. Wondertrip

[9] 霊場 恐山. Japan Web Magazine

[10] 三途さんずの川とは?True Buddhism

[11] 大涌谷の歴史. Owakudani

[12] 「黒たまご」のひみつ. Owakudani

[13] Unzen.org

[14] 「温泉」=「うんぜん」?!歴史ある良泉リゾート・雲仙温泉の魅力とは. Wondertrip

Other Sources

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Krys Suzuki

Krys is a Japanese-fluent, English native speaker currently based in the US. A former Tokyo English teacher, Krys now works full time as a J-to-E translator, writer, and artist, with a focus on subjects related to Japanese language and culture. JLPT Level N1. Shares info about Japanese language, culture, and the JLPT on Twitter (SunDogGen).

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