The following post is based on Thalia-Marie Harris’ senior capstone paper titled, “Shades of Learning: Marginalized Students, Their History, and Trials with the Japanese Education System”. In her paper, Harris specifically focused on burakumin, kikokushijo and Japanese -Brazilian children. She completed the original report in 2012 at Oberlin College. We will link to an updated, electronic copy of the paper at a later date.
“Kikokushijo” is the Japanese word for returnee, specifically Japanese children who were educated in a foreign country. Seeing as how they’re usually children of businessmen, diplomats, and other privileged professionals, it can be difficult to see them as a marginalized group at first glance. However, their marginalization is neither financial, nor legal, but societal.
Those who return from a foreign country often find themselves in the middle of two or more cultures, which of course lend the terms “bi-cultural” or “multicultural”. Because Japan projects a mono-cultural society, kikokushijo are simultaneously lauded and shunned. To put it simply, kikokushijo are viewed as resilient and cosmopolitan when it’s convenient for Japan’s image in the international community. But they’re often chastised for their cultural differences by many in Japanese society.
In this piece, we will look at a brief history of the kikokushijo, the issues they face in society, and what has been done to rectify the situation.
History of the Kikokushijo
Around the 1960s, many Japanese corporations started to expand their business abroad. This of course resulted in Japanese people working overseas. Even back then, there were major concerns about Japanese children re-assimilating back into their native/ancestral society upon their return. As such, the first Japanese schools for kikoku children were erected in Bangkok, Thailand in 1956, and in Sydney, Australia in 1969.
While the kikoku children performed well at their respective schools, they fell behind their native counterparts. Usually upon their return, kikoku children were placed one grade below the average local student. This motivated their parents, who were often part of the financial elite, to lobby for better educational options for the returnee children.
Therefore, in 1971, the Japanese Overseas Educational Services (海外子女教育振興財団 Kaigai shijo kyouiku shinko zaidan) was founded. Within a few years of its founding, it created correspondence courses and consulting assistance for returnee families and their children. Specialized high school exams were also developed for a smoother transition back into the Japanese education system.
By the 1980s, the first generation of kikokushijo had become adults. They began making appearances as bilingual singers, TV announcers, and additional entertainment related professions. Seeing as how this was during Japan’s bubble economy, the returnee adults were a great boon to the nation’s financial confidence and international image. The returnees who were fluent in English were especially treasured. Their existence made Japanese society more receptive to foreigners in general.
Therefore the first generation of kikokushijo were seen as bridges between Japan and the rest of the world. Unfortunately, their additional struggles wouldn’t be documented until a few decades later.
What does it mean to be a bridge?
As mentioned before, returnee children have a need to nurture their foreign experiences, but not at the cost of their place in Japanese society. It’s important to know that it’s not a notion of living in a “free”, usually Western society versus a “restrictive” Japanese society. Rather, it’s a matter of societal expectations.
On top of that, since returnee children are of Japanese descent or nationality, they’re expected to still “be Japanese.” For example, their ability to read the room (kuuki o yomu) is supposed to be innate, as Nihonjiron—the history, collective cultural identity and borderline stereotypical representations of Japan–suggests that Japanese culture is passed down through nature rather than nurture.
Non-Asian foreigners are exempt from this expectation because they don’t “look” Japanese.
According to a 2008 Japan Times article, there are a few instances where returnee children struggle to strike a balance between their multiple cultures. One boy didn’t stand up for himself when he was bullied at school, and when his mother asked why, he responded “kuuki o yomenakucha“–“I couldn’t read the room”.
When she asked her son’s teacher about the situation, the teacher was apathetic as well, saying the boy would eventually become what the system wants. In response, the mother transferred him to a private school with more returnee students.
Even as late as 2018, returnees lack social support during their childhood. An Asahi Shimbun article released that year showcases interviews with former kikokushijo, reflecting on issues during their childhood, which range from reverse culture shock to attempts at fitting in.
One notable account comes from Yamaguchi Miu, who was 21 at the time of this publication. She lived in the United States for most of elementary school and returned to Japan in the fourth grade. She recounted her conflicts with school, as well as the educational gap she faced.
――日本に帰ってきたときはうまく馴染めましたか？
帰ってきたときが人間関係に敏感な時期だったし、学校が荒れていたというのがストレスでした。学校に行くのが嫌な時期もありました。あと日本の勉強に追いつけなくて。やっぱり補習校レベルだとやっている内容が全然違いすぎると思います。日本語があんまり出てこなかった時期もあります。
――小4でも結構違いました？
英語はできるけど日本の小学校的な学力は足りていなかったので、ギャップに戸惑いました。初日に漢字テストがあったんですけど、もうぜんっぜん埋められなくて。それが悔しくて塾に通い始めました。
あと、帰国子女っていう目で見られるのが恥ずかしい時期がありました。英語、何か喋ってよって言われるのが、最初はすごく嫌で。当時周りに、自分と同じ帰国子女や外国の子などが全然いなくて、だから私が珍しかったみたい。学校の劇があったんですけど、その時に『あなたは英語喋りなさい』って先生に言われて。
――先生に？
はい。それで仕方なくしゃべった……みたいな。
――いやいやながら、という感じですか？
いやだったし、恥ずかしかった。しらけたらいやだなって。小学校には、英語の授業もあったんですよ。担任の先生とＡＬＴの先生が来て。私はそこで自動的にアシスタント係になっちゃって。特別扱いというか、押し付けられた感じがありました
What was it like coming back to Japan? Was it an easy transition?
Not really. I struggled with interpersonal relationships and school itself stressed me out. As a matter of fact, I hated going to school.
Studying was no cakewalk either. Everyone was at a much higher level than I was. My Japanese skills were rough as well.
It was overwhelming for you, even in the 4th grade?
I could speak English, but my elementary school Japanese skills were insufficient. On my first day of school, we had a Kanji test, and I was so clueless that I left the entire sheet blank. My frustration led me to cram school [in order to catch up].
Eventually, I became ashamed of being a kikokushijo. I resented that my first instinct was to speak in English instead of Japanese. At the time, there were no other returnee or foreign students like myself, so I was seen as an anomaly. When it came time for the school play, my teacher called me out, saying “We sure could use your English.”
Your teacher said that?
Yes. And there was nothing I could do about it.
How did it make you feel?
Upset and ashamed. I didn’t want to do it. [To make matters worse], we also had English classes in elementary schools. Because my homeroom teacher and the ALT (Assistant Language Teacher) were there, and I automatically became the teacher’s pet. It made me stand out in the worst way.
Another common thread is that returnee children feel uncomfortable with class participation. During their time abroad, they were encouraged to ask the teacher questions and engage in debate with their fellow classmates. However, such behavior is actively discouraged in Japanese schools, even by teachers, as it is largely a lecture-based curriculum.
Overall, many returnees don’t reap the societal benefits of their multiculturalism until they join the workforce as adults. By then, they are “economic commodities” and beneficial to Japanese society at large.
To the other side and back
Fortunately, the aforementioned JOES is still active, and as of 2020, there are 88 full-time Japanese schools and 204 supplementary weekend schools worldwide. Moreover, there are supplemental schools and programs in Japan as well. These schools and programs include Kikokushijo Academy, the Returnee Advanced English Program at Makuhari Junior and Senior High School and Doshisha Junior and Senior High School.
Unfortunately, the fees at some of these programs are rather costly, often double the price at other schools.
Therefore, time will only tell if Japanese society as a whole is ready to not only oversee the re-assimilation of returnee children, but to fully accept the returnees as well.
Sources
- Tsuneyoshi, Ryoko. “The “newcomers” and Japanese society.” Minorities and Education in Multicultural Japan: An Interactive Perspective. Ed. Ryoko Tsuneyoshi. 1st ed. London: Routledge Publishing, 2010. 129-148. Print.
- Nukaga, Misako, and Tsuneyoshi, Ryoko. “The kikokushijo: Negotiating boundaries within and without.” Minorities and Education in Multicultural Japan: An Interactive Perspective. Ed. Ryoko Tsuneyoshi. 1st ed. London: Routledge Publishing, 2010. 213-241. Print.
- Chan, Jennifer, ed. Another Japan is possible: new social movements and global citizenship education. 1st ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008. Print.
- Okano, Kaori. Education in Contemporary Japan: Inequality and Diversity. 1st ed. Cambridge: University Press, 1999. Print.
- Graburn, Nelson. Multiculturalism in the New Japan: Crossing the Boundaries Within (Asian Anthropologies). 1st ed. New York: Berghahn Books, 2010. Print.
- Grigg-Saito, Katrina. “Schools aim to cultivate returnee students’ ‘second culture’.” Japan Times Online [Tokyo] n.d., n. pag. Web. 10 May. 2012. <http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fl20080805zg.html
- Clavel, Teru. “Kikokushijo: Returnees to a Country Not Yet Ready for Them.” The Japan Times, 4 May 2014, www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2014/05/04/issues/kikokushoji-returnees-country-yet-ready/.
- Coulmas, Florian. “Japan’s Endless Search for Identity.” The Japan Times, 9 June 2001, www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2001/06/24/books/book-reviews/japans-endless-search-for-identity/.
- Kato, Akane. “「キコク」と言いたくない ステレオタイプに悩むサイレント帰国子女の本音：朝日新聞GLOBE＋.” The Asahi Shimbun GLOBE , 2 Mar. 2018, globe.asahi.com/article/11542875.
- “Introduction to Japan Overseas Educational Services.” Japan Overseas Educational Services, www.joes.or.jp/introduction.
- “Academics.” MAKUHARI JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – Official Site ” Academics, www.shibumaku-en.jp/academics/.
- “同志社国際中学校・高等学校（DOSHISHA International Junior / Senior High School）.” Acceptance of Returnee Students, www.intnl.doshisha.ac.jp/en/returnee/.
